Memory has a steep developmental trajectory in early childhood, which is necessary for the associated rapid acquisition of skills, facts, and cognitive concepts. The neural systems sub-serving memory have been shown to be susceptible to early negative influences, which may diminish future learning and memory ability. The investigator and colleagues have been the first to show that as early as the preschool period, stress induced alterations in cortisol are related to poorer memory performance. Although this has significant educational implications, the possible risk and protective factors that result in decreased memory abilities as a result of altered HPA axis function have not been investigated to date. The presence of very early psychopathology is hypothesized as a robust risk factor, because of the breadth of animal and human literature. Children with psychopathology are known to be at high risk for comorbid learning difficulties, which may be associated with HPA axis dysfunction. The investigator proposes to 1) replicate earlier associations between post-stress cortisol and memory abilities in young children found in a clinical sample in a community sample, 2) investigate whether young children with internalizing and/or externalizing disorders have poorer memory performance as a result of cortisol dysfunction compared to children without psychopathology, and 3) examine potential risk and protective factors for memory difficulties as a result of cortisol alterations, such as child temperament and parent-child relationship. Two existing data sets, one focused on early psychopathology and the other on risk factors will be examined. An investigation of both data sets will allow for increased generalizability of findings. They have remarkably similar, multi-informant, and comprehensive assessment measures, and both data set PIs and the investigator have an established history of collaboration on studies of early psychopathology with the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Psychopathology and Development. Investigating memory difficulties as a result of HPA axis dysfunction and psychopathology will result in implications for education, mental health prevention and treatment, and early stress management and prevention.